Web page of C.K.Mohamed/Tellicherry (Cannanore District)

ABU ABDULLAH AL-BATTANI

(868--929 A.D.)

Abu Abdallah Muhammad Ibn Jabir Ibn Sinan al-Battanial-Harrani was born around 858 A.D. in Harran, and according toone account, in Battan, a State of Harran. Battani was first educatedby his father Jabir Ibn San'an al-Battani, who was also a well-knownscientist. He then moved to Raqqa, situated on the bank of theEuphrates, where he received advanced education and later onflourished as a scholar. At the beginning of the 9th century, hemigrated to Samarra, where he worked till the e nd of his life in929 A.D. He was of Sabian origin, but was himself a Muslim.

Battani was a famous astronomer, mathematician and astro-loger. He has been held as one of the greatest astronomists of Islam.He is responsible for a number of important discoveries inastronomy, which was the result of a long care er of 42 years ofresearch beginning at Raqqa when he was young. His well-knowndiscovery is the remarkably accurate determination of the solaryear as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds, whichis very close to the latest estimates. He found t hat the longitude ofthe sun's apogee had increased by 16° , 47' since Ptolemy. Thisimplied the important discovery of the motion of the solar apsidesand of a slow variation in the equation of time. He did not believein the trapidation of the equinoxe s, although Copernicus held it.

Al-Battani determined with remarkable accuracy the obliquityof the ecliptic, the length of the seasons and the true and mean orbitof the sun.

He proved, in sharp contrast to Ptolemy, the variation of theapparent angular diameter of the sun and the possibility of annulareclipses. He rectified several orbits of the moon and the planetsand propounded a new and very ingenio us theory to determinethe conditions of visibility of the new moon. His excellent observa-tions of lunar and solar eclipses were used by Dunthorne in 1749to determine the secular acceleration of motion of the moon. Healso provided very neat solutions by m eans of orthographic projec-tion for some problems of spherical trigonometry.

In mathematics, he was the first to replace the use of Greekchords by sines, with a clear understanding of their superiority.

He also developed the concept of cotangent and furnished theirtable in degrees.

He wrote a number of books on astronomy and trigonometry.His most famous book was his astronomical treatise with tables,which was translated int o Latin in the 12th century and flourishedas De scienta stellerum — De numeris stellerum et motibus. An old translation of this is available of the Vatican. His Zij was, infact, more accurate than all others written by that time.

His treatise on astronomy was extremely influential in Europetill the Renaissance, with translations available in several languages.His original discoveries both in astronomy and trigonometry were ofgreat consequence in the develo pment of these sciences.

ABU AL-HASAN AL-MAWARDI

(972-1058 A.D.)

Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi was born at Basrah in 972 A.D. He was educated at-first in Basrah where, after completion of his basic education, he learned Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) from the jurist Abu al-Wahid al-Simari. He then went to Baghdad for advanced studies under Sheikh Abd al-Hamid and Abdallah al-Baqi. His proficiency in jurisprudence Ethics, Political science and literature proved useful in securing a respectable career for him. After his initial appointment as Qadi (Judge), he was gradually promoted to higher offices, till he became the Chief Justice at Baghdad. The Abbasid Caliph al-Qaim bi Amr Allah appointed him as his roving ambassador and sent him to a number of countries as the head of special missions. In this capacity he played a key role in establishing harmonious relations between the declining Abbasid Caliphate and the rising powers of Buwahids and Seljukes. He was favoured with rich gifts and tributes by most Sultans of the time. He was still in Baghdad when it was taken over by Buwahids.

Al-Mawardi died in 1058 A.D.

Al-Mawardi was a great jurist, mohaddith, sociologist and an expert in Political Science. He was a jurist in the school of Fiqh and his book Al-Hawi on the principles of jurisprudence is held in high repute.

His contribution in political science and sociology comprises a number of monumental books, the most famous of which are Kitab al-Ahkam al-Sultania, Qanun al-Wazarah, and Kitab Nasihat al-Mulk. The books discuss the principles of political science, with special reference to the functions and duties of the caliphs, the chief minister, other ministers, relationships between various elements of public and govemment and measures to strengthen the government and ensure victory in war. Two of these books, al-Ahkam al-Sultania and Qanun al-Wazarah have been published and also translated into various languages. He is considered as being the author/supporter of the 'Doctrine of Necessity' in political science. He was thus in favour of a strong caliphate and discouraged unlimited powers delegated to the Governors, which tended to create chaos. On the other hand, he has laid down clear principles for election of the caliph and qualities of the voters, chief among which are attainment of a degree of intellectual level and purity of character.

In ethics, he wrote Kitab Aadab al-Dunya wa al-Din, which became a widely popular book on the subject and is still read in some Islamic countries.

Al-Mawardi has been considered as one of the most famous thinkers in political science in the middle ages. His original work influenced the development of this science, together with the science of sociology, which was further developed later on by Ibn Khaldun.

ABU AL-NASR AL-FARABI

(870-950 A.D.)

Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn al-Farakh al-Farabi was born in a small village Wasij, near Farab in Turkistan in 259 A.H. (870 A.D.). His parents were originally of Persian descent, but his ancestors had migrated to Turkistan. Known as al-Phrarabius in Europe, Farabi was the son of a general. He completed his earlier education at Farab and Bukhara but, later on, he went to Baghdad for higher studies, where he studied and worked for a long time viz., from 901 A.D. to 942 A.D. During this period he acquired mastery over several languages as well as various branches of knowledge and technology. He lived through the reign of six Abbasid Caliphs. As a philosopher and scientist, he acquired great proficiency in various branches of learning and is reported to have been an expert in different languages.

Farabi travelled to many distant lands and studied for some time in Damascus and Egypt, but repeatedly came back to Baghdad, until he visited Saif al-Daula's court in Halab (Allepo). He became one of the constant companions of the King, and it was here at Halab that his fame spread far and wide. During his early years he was a Qadi (Judge), but later on the took up teaching as his profession. During the course of his career, he had suffered great hardships and at one time was the caretaker of a garden. He died a bachelor in Damascus in 339 A.H./950 A.D. at the age of 80 years.

Farabi contributed considerably to science, philosophy, logic, sociology, medicine, mathematics and music. His major contributions seem to be in philosophy, logic and sociology and, of course, stands out as an Encyclopedist. As a philosopher, he may be classed as a Neoplatonist who tried to synthesize Platonism and Aristotelism with theology and he wrote such rich commentaries on Aristotle's physics, meteorology, logic, etc., in addition to a large number of books on several other subjects embodying his original contribution, that he came to be known as the 'Second Teacher' (al-Mou'allim al-Thani) Aristotle being the First. One of the important contribu- tions of Farabi was to make the study of logic more easy by dividing it into two categories viz., Takhayyul (idea) and Thubut (proof).

In sociology he wrote several books out of which Ara Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila became famous. His books on psychology and metaphysics were largely based on his own work. He also wrote a book on music, captioned Kitab al-Musiqa. He was a great expert in the art and science of music and invented several musical instru- ments, besides contributing to the knowledge of musical notes. It has been reported that he could play his instrument so well as to make people laugh or weep at will. In physics he demonstrated the existence of void.

Although many of his books have been lost, 117 are known, out of which 43 are on logic, 11 on metaphysics, 7 on ethics, 7 on political science, 17 on music, medicine and sociology, while 11 are commentaries. Some of his more famous books include the book Fusus al-Hikam, which remained a text book of philosophy for several centuries at various centres of learning and is still taught at some of the institutions in the East. The book Kitab al-lhsa al 'Ulum discusses classification and fundamental principles of science in a unique and useful manner. The book Ara Ahl al-Madina al- Fadila 'The Model City' is a significant early contribution to socio- logy snd political science.

Farabi exercised great influence on science and knowledge for several centuries. Unfortunately, the book Theology of Aristotle, as was available to him at that time was regarded by him as genuine, although later on it turned out to be the work of some Neoplatonic writer. Despite this, he was regarded the Second Teacher in philosophy for centuries and his work, aimed at synthesis of philosophy and sufism, paved the way for Ibn Sina's work.

ABU AL-QASIM AL-ZAHRAWI

(936-1013 A.D.)

Abul Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahrawi (known in thewest as Abulcasis) was born in 9 36 A.D. in Zahra in the neighbour-hood of Cordova. He became one of the most renowned surgeonsof the Muslim era and was physician to King Al-Hakam-II of Spain.After a long medical career, rich with significant original contribu-tion, he died in 1013 A.D.
He is best known for his early and original breakthroughs insurgery as well as for his famous Medical Ecyclopaedia calledAl-Tasrif, which is composed of thirty volumes covering differentaspects of medical science. The more important part of t his seriescomprises three books on surgery, which describe in detail variousaspects of surgical treatment as based on the operations performedby him, including cauterization, removal of stone from the bladder,dissection of animals, midwifery, stypics, and surgery of eye, ear andthroat. He perfected several delicate operations, including removalof the dead foetus and amputation.

Al-Tasrif was first translated by Gherard of Cremona into Latinin the Middle Ages. It was followed by several other editors inEurope. The book contains numerous diagrams and illustrations ofsurgical instruments, in use or developed by him, and compriseda part of the medical curriculum in European countries for manycenturies. Contrary to the view that the Muslims fought shy ofsurgery, Al-Zahrawi's Al-Tasrif provided a monumental collectionfor this branch of applied science.

Al-Zahrawi was the inventor of several surgical instruments, ofwhich three are notable: (i) an instrument for internal examina-tion of the ear, (ii) an instrument for internal inspection of theurethra, and (iii) and instrument for applying or removing foreignbodies from the throat. He specialized in curing disease by cauteriza-tion and applied the technique to as many as 50 differentoper ations.

In his book Al-Tasrif, Al-Zahrawi has also discussed the prepara-tion of various medicines, in addition to a comprehensive accountof surgical treatment in specialized branches, whose modern counter-parts are E.N.T., Ophthalmology, etc . In connection with thepreparation of medicines, he has also described in detail the applica-tion of such techniques as sublimation and decantation. Al-Zahrawiwas also an expert in dentistry, and his book contains sketches ofvarious instruments used ther eof, in addition to a description ofvarious important dental operations. He discussed the problem ofnon-aligned or deformed teeth and how to rectify these defects.He developed the technique of preparing artificial teeth and ofreplacement of defective teet h by these. In medicine, he was thefirst to describe in detail the unusual disease, haemophelia.

There can be no doubt that Al-Zahrawi influenced the field ofmedicine and surgery very deeply and the principles laid down byhim were recognized as auth entic in medical science, especiallysurgery, and these continued to influence the medical world for fivecenturies. According to Dr. Cambell (History of Arab Medicine),his principles of medical science surpassed those of Galen in theEuropean medical curriculum.

ABU HAMID AL-GHAZALI

(1058-1128 A.D.)

Abu Hamid Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Tusi al-Shafi'i al-Ghazali was born in 1058 A.D. in Khorasan, Iran. His father died while he was still very young but he had the opportunity of getting education in the prevalent curriculum at Nishapur and Baghdad. Soon he acquired a high standard of scholarship in religion and philosophy and was honoured by his appointment as a Professor at the Nizamiyah University of Baghdad, which was recognised as one of the most reputed institutions of learning in the golden era of Muslim history.

After a few years, however, he gave up his academic pursuits and worldly interests and became a wandering ascetic. This was a process (period) of mystical transformation. Later, he resumed his teaching duties, but again left these. An era of solitary life, devoted to contemplation and writing then ensued, which led to the author- ship of a number of everlasting books. He died in 1128 A.D. at Baghdad.

Ghazali's major contribution lies in religion, philosophy and sufism. A number of Muslim philosophers had been following and developing several viewpoints of Greek philosophy, including the Neoplatonic philosophy, and this was leading to conflict with several Islamic teachings. On the other hand, the movement of sufism was assuming such excessive proportions as to avoid observance of obligatory prayers and duties of Islam. Based on his unquestionable scholarship and personal mystical experience, Ghazali sought to rectify these trends, both in philosophy and sufism.

In philosophy, Ghazali upheld the approach of mathematics and exact sciences as essentially correct. However, he adopted the techniques of Aristotelian logic and the Neoplatonic procedures and employed these very tools to lay bare the flaws and lacunas of the then prevalent Neoplatonic philosophy and to diminish the negative influences of Aristotelianism and excessive rationalism. In contrast to some of the Muslim philosophers, e.g., Farabi, he portrayed the inability of reason to comprehend the absolute and the infinite. Reason could not transcend the finite and was limited to the observa- tion of the relative. Also, several Muslim philosophers had held that the universe was finite in space but infinite in time. Ghazali argued that an infinite time was related to an infinite space. With his clarity of thought and force of argument, he was able to create a balance between religion and reason, and identified their respective spheres as being the infinite and the finite, respectively.

In religion, particularly mysticism, he cleansed the approach of sufism of its excesses and reestablished the authority of the ortho- dox religion. Yet, he stressed the importance of genuine sufism, which he maintained was the path to attain the absolute truth.

He was a prolific writer. His immortal books include Tuhafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Ihya al-'Ulum al-Islamia (The Rivival of the Religious Sciences), "The Beginning of Guidance and his Autobiography", "Deliverance from Error". Some of his works were translated into European languages in the Middle Ages. He also wrote a summary of astronomy.

Ghazali's influence was deep and everlasting. He is one of the greatest theologians of Islam. His theological doctrines penetrated Europe, influenced Jewish and Christian Scholasticism and several of his arguments seem to have been adopted by St. Thomas Aquinas in order to similarly reestablish the authority of orthodox Christian religion in the West. So forceful was his argument in the favour of religion that he was accused of damaging the cause of philosophy and, in the Muslim Spain, Ibn Rushd (Averros) wrote a rejoinder to his Tuhafut.

ck_mohd@hotmail.com

HOME |